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Total Harmonic
Excerpt 1
Excerpts 2 and 3
 
 
Total Harmonic
Excerpts 2 and 3

 

Radiofrequencies

Radiofrequency waves range from about 3 hertz to 300 gigahertz. This means their waves travel from speeds of 3 cycles per second up to 3,000,000 cycles per second. Extremely low frequency (ELF=3-30 Hz) and super low frequency (SLF=30-300 Hz) broadcasting has primarily been used for submarine communications, as these wavelengths transmit well through the water. This is also the frequency range that sound travels. Ultra low frequency (ULF=300-3000 Hz) has primarily been used in mines, where the waves can penetrate the depths. Above these levels, very low frequency and low frequency (VLF and LF = 3-300 kHz) have been used by beacons, heart rate monitors, navigation and time signaling. Medium frequency (300-3000 kHz) radiowaves are typically used for AM broadcasts, while high frequency (HF = 3-30 MHz) is used primarily for shortwave and amateur radio broadcasting. Very high frequency (VHF =  30-300 MHz) waves are used for FM radio, television and aircraft communications while ultra high frequency (300-3000 MHz) waves are used for certain television ranges, but also cell phones, wireless LAN, GPS, Bluetooth and many two-way radios. While often considered outside the radio spectrum, super high frequency (SHF = 3-30 GHz) waves are used in microwave devices, some LAN wireless systems and radar. Extremely high frequency (EHF = 30-300 GHz) is used for long-range systems such as microwave radio and astronomy radio systems. The audio frequencies are primarily ELF through VLF brands, covering 20-20,000 Hz.

Note that radiofrequency wavelengths inversely vary to their frequency (for naturally occurring EMR such as light, the frequency will equal the speed of light divided by the wavelength), so while an ULF wave can be between 10,000 and 100,000 kilometers long, a UHF wave will range from one meter to ten millimeters in length, while an ELF wavelength will be between one millimeter and ten millimeters.

Radiofrequencies have been utilized by humans only for about the last seventy-five years. Early use was primarily for radio transmission, while the past few decades various communication and signaling systems have been developed to utilize radiofrequencies. Radiofrequencies are generated with alternating current fed through an antenna at particular speeds and wavelengths.

Studies on radiofrequency radiation proximity at work have also studied possible reproductive and cardiovascular effects. While many of the reports are inconclusive, there have been positive correlations between radiofrequency exposure and delayed conception (Larsen et al. 1991), spontaneous abortion (Quellet-Hellstrom and Steward 1993; Taskinen et al. 1990), stillbirth (Larsen et al. 1991), preterm birth after father exposure (Larsen et al. 1991), and birth defects (Larson 1991). However, many of these results have either not been replicated or remain uncorroborated. Three studies examined male military personnel exposure to microwaves and radar (Hjollund et al. 1997; Lancranjan et al. 1975; Weyandt et al. 1996). All three found sperm density reductions.

A number of cruel animal studies have illustrated adverse health effects from radiowaves but doubt has been raised regarding the dose comparison with humans. In one study, GSM phone frequency radiowaves caused the cell death of about 2% of rat brains. Researchers hypothesized that the blood-brain barrier was being penetrated by the radiation (Salford 2003). This was correlated by three earlier studies that reported blood-brain barrier penetration with radiowave exposure (Shivers et al. 1987; Prato et al. 1990; Schirmacher et al. 2000). In the four years following the release of this latter study, several other studies on rats could not replicate the findings, nor could they establish a confirmation of the permeation of the blood-brain-barrier from radiofrequencies (Orendacova 2007; Finnie 2006; Franke 2005; Kuribayashi 2005; Franke 2005; Paulson 2004; Finnie 2004) Shivers and colleagues (Shivers et al. 1987; Prato et al. 1990) had previously examined the effect of magnetic resonance imaging upon the rat brain. They showed that the combined exposure to radiofrequencies with pulsed and static magnetic fields gave rise to a significant pinocytotic transport of albumin from the capillaries into the brain.

Rates of breast cancer, endometrial cancer, testicular cancer and lung cancer have been studied with close range radiofrequency radiation, primarily in occupational settings. Slightly positive correlations with endometrial cancer (Cantor et al. 1995) and breast cancer (Demers et al. 1991) were found. A potential link between testicular cancer and radiofrequency radiation from traffic radar guns, particularly among a small group of police officers (Davis and Mostofi 1993) was also established. Slightly increased ocular melanoma was established among occupational radiofrequency exposure (Holly et al. 1996) in another small group. French and Canadian utility workers were found to have an increased likelihood of lung cancer (Armstrong et al. 1994). However this couldn’t be replicated in a U.S. study.

Cell phone tower radiofrequencies are popular concerns. The first cell phones communicated with analog frequencies of 450 or 900 megahertz, for example. By the 1990s, cell phones were using 1800 megahertz, and various modulation systems. Now the Universal Mobile Telecommunication System is adhered to, which uses 1900 to 2200 megahertz.

In 2000, over 80,000 cell tower base stations were in use in the United States. By 2006 this number was estimated at 175,000. CTIA, the International Association for Wireless Telecommunications Industry, estimates that by 2010 there will be about 260,000 towers. These base stations transmit radiowaves using around 100 watts of power. The range of GSM towers is about 40 kilometers, while the CDMA and iDEN technologies offer ranges of 50 to 70 kilometers. This obviously is relative to terrain. In a hilly area, the range can be a few kilometers.

In populated areas, cell base towers are placed from one to two miles apart, while in urban areas they can be as close together as a quarter of a mile. Some cell phone bases are mounted on primary towers, and some are built onto elevated structures such as buildings and hillsides.

A base cell tower antenna is comprised of a transmitter(s), a receiver(s)—often called transceivers—an electrical power source, and various digital signal processors. The circuits will utilize copper, fiber, or microwave connections. They may be connected to the network via T1, E1, T3 and/or Ethernet connections. They are typically strung together through base station controllers and radio network controllers, typically connected to a switched telephone network system. The radio network controller will connect to the SGSN network.

There has been scant research on the risks of radiofrequency waves from radio stations or television stations. The primary reason for this appears to be because most of these have been located outside of densely populated areas, on high towers enabling greater ranges. Cell towers have created more concern because of their close proximity and relatively lower heights.

Research has suggested that exposure from cell towers is reduced by a factor of one to one hundred times inside of a building, depending upon the building materials and style of the building. However, exposure also increases with height. Upper floors can have substantially greater exposure levels than lower floors (Schuz and Mann 2000). Whether this is a factor of pure height or whether the earth provides a buffering factor is not known.

Exposure levels in regions surrounding cell towers will range from .01 to .1% of ISNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection) permitted levels for general public exposure directly around the station, to .1 to 1% of ISNIRP permitted levels between 100 meters and 200 meters from the tower. Beyond the 200-meter level, the exposure returns to the .01 to .1% level and reduces as the range increases. It should be noted also that exposure levels from cell phone towers are not substantially greater than exposure levels of radiofrequencies (RF) emitted by radio broadcasting towers (Wood 2007). In one Australian study, the greatest level found was .2% (Henderson 2006).

In a 2006 randomized double-blind study performed at the Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology at the University of Zurich (Regel et al.) in Switzerland, UMTS signals approximating the strength of a cell phone tower emission were tested on 117 healthy human subjects, 33 of which were self-reported as sensitive to cell towers with 84 reporting non-sensitivity. Physiological analyses included organ-specific tests, cognitive tests, and well-being questionnaires. Apparently significant negative physiological or cognitive results were not found, although there appeared to be a marginal effect on one of the cognitive tests for each of the two groups. Because the difference was slight, and each group (sensitive versus control) had different results, this effect was considered insignificant.

In 2006 the British medical journal Lancet (Rubin et al.) reported a study done at the King’s College in London which tested 60 self-reported sensitive people and 60 control subjects with no reported sensitivities. Six different symptoms such as headaches were tracked, and subjects took questionnaires in an attempt to find whether the sensitive subjects could successfully judge whether a cell tower signal was on or off. While 60% of the sensitive subjects believed the tower signals were on when they were on, 63% believed the tower signals to be on when they were indeed off.

There have also been several international studies done on radiofrequency transmissions from masts. Tests in the United States, Britain, Australia and the Vatican City have shown no or low correlation between RF levels and health effects, rendering these studies for the most part, inconclusive. One study in the Netherlands using simulated mobile phone base station transmissions did conclude, however, that the UMTS-like spectrum of cell transmission might have an adverse affect upon the well-being of questionnaire respondents.

In July of 2007, an independent team of researchers (Eltiti et al.) from the University of Essex reported findings from a three-year double-blind study using a special laboratory to test potential cell phone tower effects. The study included 44 people who reported sensitivity to cell phone towers and 114 healthy people who had not. The study measured various physiological factors like skin conductance, blood pressure and heart rate while being exposed (or not) to 3G tower signals. During periods where the researcher and the subject knew the signals were on, sensitive people reported feeling worse, and their physiological factors were affected negatively. However when neither the subjects nor the researchers knew the cell tower signals were on during a series of tests, there was no difference between either the sensitive or non-sensitive subjects with regard to physiological factors. In fact, only two of the forty-four sensitive subjects were able to guess the cell tower signals being on correctly while five of the control subjects (non-sensitive) were able to guess correctly. Subjects who reported sensitivities to cell phone towers prior to the study reported negative symptoms more often regardless of whether the cell tower transmitters were on or off. 

Copyright 2008 Casey Adams 

 


 

The Resonance Principle

In 1863, John Alexander Newlands, a British chemist, was the first to construct a periodic table of elements arranged to atomic mass. Contrasting Mendleev’s atomic number table, Newlands’ table revealed that every eighth element apparently had amazingly similar properties. This led Newlands to propose the law of octaves, which also occurred to him due to early musical training. Newlands could not help recognize the numerical parallel occurring between the elemental spacing and the harmonic that occurred in music theory.

A musical octave—also referred to as the perfect octave—is the interval occurring between notes with a doubling or halving of frequency between them. In other words, the successive note octave has a frequency double that of the previous note. Another perfect octave will occur when the frequency is doubled again. A note at an octave above the previous is also written as that same note, simply because the human ear hears both as essentially the same sound even though the two sounds actually vibrate at different frequencies. This is referred to as equivalency.

The perfect octave is precisely double the previous note, while a diminished or augmented octave would have a slight variance from doubling, into a flat or sharp note.

Absolute harmonic is accomplished when sound frequencies are whole integer multiples of some particular frequency. The first four harmonics of a 200-hertz frequency are 400 hertz, 600 hertz, 800 hertz, and 1000 hertz, for example. The whole integer multiple of a sound will harmonize with the first sound simply because its frequency is reflective. By reflective we mean the successive sound mirrors the waveform of the first sound. This reflective waveform is typically referred to as the fundamental frequency in a harmonic sequence. If we look at the concept of harmonic from a broader perspective, we can understand that each harmonic is actually a reflective fraction of an even greater harmonic—a more expansive fundamental frequency.

The pitch of a sound is related to its frequency, yet frequency is not the only characteristic of pitch. The pitch of a sound is more precisely its perceived frequency. While the frequency is a two-dimensional measurement related to cycles per second, a sound’s pitch may incorporate a variety of overtones into the total sound. These may include changes in amplitude, tempo, and intonation. These qualities give the waveform informative and instrumental variance. A sound may be pitched in such a way to appear very much like a note of a particular frequency, yet the sound waveform may not have that precise frequency. The pure note A, for example, should have a frequency of 440 hertz. Most concert tuning forks are set to the A-440 frequency for this reason. In music writing, the pitch is consistent with a tonal step from a fundamental frequency note, though musicians can subtly raise the pitch of a particular note or composition with intelligent instrumentation.

When notes move into the flat or sharp designation, the pitch or frequency adjustment moves into the enharmonic genus, which is based on the Greek tetra chord. The tetra chord concept is that notes can be tuned in intervals of perfect fourths. The four-stringed lyre was the basis for this early concept, but as the tetra chord concept expanded into other instruments, the diatonic and chromatic interval systems were added to the enharmonic system.

Pitch variances are measured in tones. A shift to flat or sharp may become a variance in semitones, quartertones, duotones, or even microtones. These shifts may also be represented as fractions. For example, a ditone—or third major tone—may be 16/13 of a full note. The octave concept expressed in tetra chords would thus be a whole tone plus two tetra cords.

The chromatic scale is a common scale used in music to denote the rise through a series of related notes. The chromatic scale is usually based upon the C note, but the B note or others may be used as fundamental pitches as well. There are typically twelve total pitches in a tempered chromatic scale. Each of these pitches is a half step or semitone step from the prior pitch.

As music math has further developed, the perfect fourth led way to the disjunctive perfect fifth. Also called the diapente, this is a music interval providing harmonious latitude with surrounding tones. On the piano keyboard, perfect fifths are separated by exactly seven keys. The perfect fifth also provides the root of the major and minor chords and their extensions. While the just fifth provides a 3:2 ratio, the perfect fifth has seven semitones, two less than the just fifth.

When notes harmonize, they resonate together. A tuning fork set to A-440 will resonate at the 440 hertz frequency, transferring this frequency through the air until interfered with. A concert tuning fork will typically be tuned to the violin’s third string. As the violin is tuned, the tuning fork and the violin’s third string will resonate together. This occurs because of a facility within the violin’s construction to allow it to become an acoustic resonator. An acoustic resonator is a point on an instrument or body that carries the vibration of a note for a period of time. In other words, it vibrates at the same frequency. On a violin, for example, the string, the bridge, and the body of the violin all facilitate this resonating system. When the tuning fork is struck and the A note resonates through the concert hall, a violin tuned to the A note will resonate with the tuning fork, forming a harmonic to tune by.

 


 

 

 

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